Philosophical and Theoretical Analysis of “Terrorism and the Politics of Fear” by David L. Altheide The WritePass Journal

Philosophical and Theoretical Analysis of â€Å"Terrorism and the Politics of Fear† by David L. Altheide Philosophical and Theoretical Analysis of â€Å"Terrorism and the Politics of Fear† by David L. Altheide (a) Identify the philosophical or theoretical perspective underlying the research. The events of September 11th 2001 caused terrorism to become central to the social landscape of the contemporary world. It was not only terrorism in itself that became an important issue, but also the changing rhetoric and ideas involving terrorism around the globe. In his content analysis of US newspapers, Altheide focused on the ongoing dialogue characterising terrorism as something to be feared by the American people. The main hypothesis is summarised by Altheide as follows:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The terms crime, victim and fear are joined with news reports about terrorism to construct public discourse that reflects symbolic relationships about order, danger, and threat that may be exploited by political decision makers.† (Altheide 2006: pp. 416). The inference here is that the three terms at hand represent fairly negative social concepts which are familiar to the US audience at large. Altheide posits that associating these concepts with terrorism was politically beneficial for a government who were trying to justify a ‘war on terror’ in the Middle East in that it defined the idea of terrorism in very immediate, negative terms. Considering social realignment and redefinition of fundamental concepts in this way is a very subjectivist mode of study (Benton Craib 2001). The idea that social concepts like terrorism are innately subjective and relative can be traced back to the roots of subjective sociological study: Durkheim posited that such concepts are defined and redefined by their relationship to other concepts and should be studied and viewed in terms of these relationships (1982 [1895]). The aim of this mode of comparative study is that subjective facts could be studied in comparison to each-other rather than in comparison to the bias of the researcher, this arguably allows for an objective scientific study of highly subjective social concepts (Collins 1975). Such an approach is evident in Altheide’s study of the social concept of terror. The concepts at hand are studied in the context of their presentation by the mass media in order to reach a conclusion regarding the way in which the press act to build consent for interventionist political ends. This conclusion makes comparisons with Herman and Chomsky’s (1988) propaganda mode of political economy almost unavoidable. The early Marxian model of ruling classes and ruling ideas in the German ideology (1932) is also relevant to the conclusion. Both of these models see distinctive elites subjectively redefining concepts and presenting them as banal and objective truths to be accepted by the masses in a model of elitist social constructionism (Berger Luckman 1967).   This subjective, constructionist perspective seems to be very much the theoretical basis of Alheide’s work as evidenced below. (b) Show how the philosophical or theoretical perspective informs the research design and conclusions. Altheide states his methodology as a qualitative content analysis of media coverage of terrorism: He attempts to track and situate the discourse around it in relation to the words fear, crime and victim, and how they are â€Å"joined with news reports about terrorism to construct public discourse which reflects symbolic relationships about order, danger, and threat that may be exploited by political decision makers.† (Altheide 2006, pp. 422). This illustrates the critical link between Durkheim’s (1982) situated subjective concepts and the terms being qualitatively assessed. It also illustrates the constructionist view of the pursuits of ‘political decision makers’ taken by Altheide.   Further to this Altheide acknowledges the dynamic nature of the subjective concepts he handles by deciding to compare the newspapers’ discourse in the eighteen months preceding September 11th to the discourse in the 18 months immediately following it in order to track the change in consideration of terrorism as a concept. Social constructionism holds that society is built, defined, rebuilt and redefined to a greater or lesser degree by all of the actors and agencies which constitute it based on definition and situation of concepts.   Recently more and more consideration has been given to the powerful elites in society and their relatively greater contribution to these concepts and how they work in society, politics and the media are two such elites (Wanda 2003). In Altheide’s case the study leads him to conclude that American society has been redefined as a group of victims on a large scale. Further to this he posits that this new definition leads to increased reliance on American institutions and decreased criticism of them. The eventual effect of this is that security institutions can overstep previous boundaries and justify the kind of mission creep that would have been unacceptable before 9/11. This conclusion reads soundly with Herman and Chomsky’s (1988) model of media based political economy. The fact that the focus is on the newspapers’ handling of the issues rather than the discourse of the politicians themselves indicates that the as well as the conclusion research is informed by Herman and Chomsky’s model rather than a more directly government-focused idea which might have had more immediate but less incisive results. Chomsky has already applied this rhetorical position to the context of 9/11 albeit loosely (Chomsky 2001) he concludes similarly to Altheide: â€Å"In short, the crime is a gift to the hard jingoist right, those who hope to use force to control their domains†. In other text he has called for and supported the work of others in applying his and Herman’s model to this context (e.g. Herring and Robinson 2003), whether Altheide heeded this call in designing his research or whether it was a happy coincidence is unknown. Wha t is known is that the conclusions support Chomsky’s earlier reading, but to what degree is the research theoretically effective? This is considered below. (c) Critically assess the adequacy of the research in terms of its philosophical or theoretical perspective.    The selection of qualitative content analysis over quantitative methods is an obvious choice for a researcher looking to subjectively analyse a concept in terms of how it relates to other ideas, this is because by its very nature qualitative content analysis considers the context of words in a text (Krippendorf 2004 Ch2: Conceptual Foundation). This research methodology is inherently relative and subjective; by contrast it would be very challenging to construct an essentialist qualitative content analysis. If terrorism is to be considered from a subjective point of view, tracking the discourse relating to it comparatively before and after a major definitive terrorist event allows solid insight into the changing definition of the concept. The hypothesis that the definition of the concepts at hand has changed can only be proved through a comparative, long term analysis identifying the concept’s relation to other ideas. Just as comparison of two media sources will reveal differences in their handling and definition of a subject, so comparison of two time periods will reveal changes in definition and handling of subjects over time (Riffe et al. 2008). The same newspapers and magazines were used throughout, a basic step which ensures representative constancy throughout the time period in question allowing firmly based comment on the changes in approach. The selection of these newspapers and magazines to provide a definitive, representative cross section of the US press is important to Altheide’s theoretical stance and is acknowledged as such in the study methodology (pp. 422). Altheide’s hypothesis that press and media elites were constructing ‘rhetorics of fear’ for the American public in general requires consideration of a representative portion of the media in question read by a representative portion of the American public, to achieve this a range of large scale sources with large readerships were the focus of the research. This ensures that the sources in question have the descriptive power which Herman and Chomsky saw as central to their role in the political economy (1988), as well as providing a numerically representative audience. The search policies and protocols used by Altheide are based on the words fear, victim, crime and terrorism. These words are not simply searched for in terms of their occurrence in isolation, instead articles with these words â€Å"in various relationships or within several words of each-other† (pp. 422) were selected and analysed in context with particular attention to the relationships themselves. This is important from the theoretical standpoint of sociological subjectivism and constructionism as it provides a socially defined context for the concept of terrorism in terms of relevance to other social concepts. The identification of the major newspapers as definers, their large audiences as receivers and the politicians as profiteers provides a very solid basis for Altheide to create an account of the socially constructed political economy being considered. Questions have been raised about the limits of qualitative inquiry where subjective definitions are concerned (Krippend orf 2004), however these remain unanswered. Although not perfect, Altheide’s work is a representative and rational example of subjective, constructionist research into media politics. (d) Offer an alternative interpretation of the research findings and/or an alternative research design based on a different philosophical or theoretical perspective. In his conclusion Altheide reads the situation in a way which follows rationally from his results, but in a way which is very focused on the press as a creator of concepts, he makes a number of important critical statements: Firstly that the media is at least partly responsible for defining social concepts which affect the views and actions of the American public. Secondly that this was done by linking concepts to create definitions where there were none before. Thirdly that the political elite profited from this in that it helped them gain public compliance. And lastly that this relationship was, to some degree at least, consciously created â€Å"by a compliant press [who] stressed fear of terrorism† (pp. 425). This reading is based on the evidence that after 9/11 press coverage of terrorism changed to create a rhetoric of a crime against the united states, which had identifiable perpetrators (terrorists) and identifiable victims (the US public) and which the government could prevent in future.   This is an unavoidably partisan view, the government are characterised by the press as a white knight and the terrorists as the evil enemy. As Chomsky (2001) commented this is not an objective truth but a subjective illustration and Altheide analyses it as such. However the subjective illustration does not necessarily have to be considered in terms of its origin from a social construction of subjective ideas. It can equally be seen as a reaction to real events, based on empirically defined human nature. This reading can be summarized in four comparative critical statements which contrast with the summary of Altheide’s laid out above. Firstly the media are a fundamental means of reacting to events in coordination or contention with others, a social product of human nature (Kueter 2005: Ch 9). Secondly that the concepts with which they deal, such as fear and will to power are equally natural and equally innate in the human condition, they are not socially constructed, their application is the only thing that is defined by their context. On the third point there is some agreement, the political elite did profit by virtue of being able to control the context in which the ideas were applied, they did not control the ideas themselves. Ironi cally, Noam Chomsky’s critical redefinition of 9/11 (2001) can be used as proof of this theory in opposition to his own, if the government and the media had had definitive control over the concept of terrorism Chomsky would have been unable to define it separately as a rational reaction. His redefinition arguably shows that there is an essential definition of terrorism outside of what the media creates.   Lastly, it is natural that any kind of human interaction is defined by its support of or opposition to the status quo, agreement and disagreement are the basis of all critique (Kueter 2005). That the US press and government are in support of each-other is unsurprising given that they both represent the public of the country which suffered a very public attack. In this way the conclusion becomes one of natural constants such as group solidarity and Nietzsche’s will to power, rather than of subjective manipulation and relativity. Conclusion    Bibliography Altheide, D. L. (2006) ‘Terrorism and the Politics of Fear’ Critical Methodologies 6 (4) pp. 415-439 Benton, T. and Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science. Basingstoke: Palgrave Berger, P. L. Luckmann, T. (1967) The Social Construction of Reality New York: Anchor Chomsky, N. (2001) On the Bombings [viewed online 20/12/2011] Zmag [available from:] nodo50.org/csca/agenda2001/ny_11-09-01/chomski-eng.html Collins, R. (1975). Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science. New York: Academic Press Durkheim, E Halls, W. D. (Ed) (1982 [1895]) Rules of the Sociological Method   New York: Free Press Herman, E. S. Chomsky (1988) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media New York: Pantheon Books Herring, E Robinson, P (2003) â€Å"Too Polemical or Too Critical? Chomsky on the study of the news media and US foreign policy† Review of International Studies 29 pp. 553-568 Kueter, R (2005) â€Å"Politics, Business and the Media† in. The State of Human Nature Lincoln: IUniverse Krippendorf, K. (2004) Content Analysis: An introduction to its methodology Thousand Oaks: Sage Marx, Karl (1932) ‘Ruling class and ruling ideas’ in The German Ideology, pp. 64-68. Wanda, R.E. (2003)   The Contributions of Social Consructivism to Political Science [viewed online 29/12/2011] Analyst network [available from:] analyst-network.com/articles/190/ThecontributionsofSocialConstructivisminPoliticalScience.pdf

How To Say Both in Spanish

How To Say Both in Spanish There are various ways of expressing the idea of both in Spanish. Translating Both Meaning Too Most of the time, both simply means two and functions as an adjective or pronoun. In such cases, you can translate both as either ambos (ambas in the feminine) or los dos (las dos in the feminine). The two terms are almost interchangeable; ambos is somewhat more formal. Here are some examples: Los dos se abrazaron. (Both hugged each other.)Las dos cartas escritas desde Calabria reflejan la misma bondad. (Both letters written from Calabria reflect the same kindness.)A los dos nos duele la cabeza si tenemos hambre. (Both of us have a headache if were hungry.)Los dos là ­deres de Al Qaeda ms buscados en Irak murieron durante una operacià ³n militar. (Both of the most-wanted leaders of Al-Qaida in Iraq died during a military operation.)Ambos creyeron poder demostrar la existencia de Dios. (Both believed they could demonstrate the existence of God.)Me gustarà ­a mucho leer ambos libros. (I would very much like to read both books.)Ambas dijeron que no volvern nunca ms al Perà º tras esta amarga experiencia. (Both said they would never return to Peru after this bitter experience.)Ambas opciones son buenas, y a veces no prefiero ninguno. (Both options are good, and sometimes I dont prefer either one.) Note that in each of the above examples, ambos or los dos also could have been translated as two or the two. Translating the Emphatic Both There are many cases where both isnt the equivalent of two, usually when it is used for emphasis. Theres no one set way to express the concept; you need to look at the sentence to determine the context and develop a translation in that way. Here are some examples; note that the translations given arent the only ones possible: El aprendizaje es una asociacà ­Ãƒ ³n en el cual tanto el maestro como el estudiante juegan un papel dinmico.  (Learning is a partnership in which both the teacher and the student play a dynamic role.  Here, both adds emphasis, indicating that the teacher, as well as the student, play a role.)Queremos comprar una casa grande y adems barata. (We want to buy a house that is both big and cheap. The use of both suggests that the two qualities normally dont go together and thus adds emphasis. Here, adems, which usually means also, fulfills a similar function.)Pablo y Raà ºl tienen sendos hematomas que estn siendo tratados. (Pablo and Raà ºl both have bruises that are being treated. Both is used here to clarify that each of the victims, not just one of them, is bruised. Sendos is an always-plural adjective often translated as respective or his or her own and is used here to provide a similar meaning. Sendos or sendas can also refer to more than two.)Hubo errores de uno y otro lado e n el conflicto. (There were errors on both sides of the conflict. Both is used to emphasize the existence of a contrast, which uno y otro also does.) No es posible perder peso y comer lo que te gusta al mismo tiempo. (It isnt possible to both lose weight and eat everything you want. Both here suggest that two actions are being done simultaneously. Al mismo tiempo means at the same time.) Translating Common Phrases With Both At least English phrases or idioms with both have Spanish equivalents. Both sides, when referring to opposing sides of an argument or position, can be translated idiomatically with las dos campanas, which means literally both bells. Siempre oigo las dos campanas antes de hacer un juicio. (I always listen to both sides before making a judgment.)Creo que nuestros servidores pà ºblicos no escuchan las dos campanas. (I believe our public servants arent listening to both sides.) The best of both worlds can be translated literally as lo mejor de dos mundos or loosely as lo mejor de cada casa (literally, the best of each house). Este vehà ­culo ofrece lo mejor de dos mundos, la deportividad de un coupà © y la espaciosidad de un SUV. (This vehicle offers the best of both worlds, the sportiness of a coupe and the space of an SUV.)Brasil es in paà ­s multicultural que tiene lo mejor de cada casa. (Brazil is a multicultural country that has the best of both worlds.

Evaluate the role of the internet for a college student Essay

Evaluate the role of the internet for a college student - Essay Example Internet has become increasingly essential to virtually everyone in the worldpeople try to become one global village.Internet has proved to be of a great significance to college peers and it has become a part of their daily lives. Internet assists students as they go on with their studies and researches. Due to the wide range of information present in the internet, it makes it easy for students to conduct research using internet libraries such as Proquest, Ebsco, and Emerald Insight among others. For instance, a student may have a task of doing a research on topic in which they cannot interact with the subject of research due to geographical or financial constraints. Professionals have concluded that, â€Å"Internet is a wide range of supporter by providing all contacts requirements and all types of information, searching facilities with its various digital tools† (Isman Web.). By visiting the internet, the student may gather vital information that will assist the student in t he research about the topic. Due to rapid advances in technology, experts came up with an internet learning programs that enable an individual to learn at the place of their comfort.For instance, e-learning has made it possible for students across the world to learn through virtual classes. Internet is now a common and globally used medium of communication. This makes the students keep in touch with the significant partieswho are of substantial help to them. Incase a student has some query it is easier to contact someone who will help them sort out the issue at hand through the internet.For instance, the student may contact tutorsor friends who may help in solving an academically related issue.Communication platforms such as Skype, Facebook video calling, and Google+ among others have made it possible to video conference. Students can take advantage of such communication platforms to enhance their studies through collaboration with other students and education experts across the wor ld. Certainly, â€Å"Internet has become such an integral part everywhere and a potent communication tool† (Kashif-Ur-Rehma et al 48).This is evident through social media whereby students are able to gather vital information from different parts and from different individuals around the world, which might be of great assistance to the student. Due to the purposes of relaxation, internet offers a wide range of services to facilitate the student as they relax after their studies. Internet games, music, videos, and other forms of entertainmentare widely available in the internet. Whereas such forms of entertainment can be potentially damaging, wise use of internet entertainment can be of great use to students. Games such as chess and scramble, helps the students in sharpening their brains. For instance playing chess, which is considered as the game for genius, may improve ability to focus and think critically.There are games such as crosswords or Sudoku, these games helps to the student to construct vocabularies thus making it easier for them to comprehend easily what they are taught. Whereas the world has increasingly become busy, parenting has become equally challenging. Students more often than not opt to use internet as solution finder to most of social and personal issues such as relationships. It is argued, â€Å"Teens may be too embarrassed to seek information on sex from parents†

Bride of Frankenstein by James Whale Movie Review

Bride of Frankenstein by James Whale - Movie Review Example However, in spite of all these furious actions by the monster, several critics of the film find the monster to be a sympathetic figure and a reflective analysis of the character proves that the monster incorporates compassionate elements along with the apparent condemnable features. Bride of Frankenstein, unlike the original Frankenstein movie, depicts the story of the Shelley novel almost exactly and the monster in this film version has a compassionate appearance. "While in Frankenstein he was a murderous vengeful creature, the sequel presents a Monster the audience can sympathise with, thus bringing him much closer to Mary Shelley's original concept In one of them the Monster saves a girl from drowning and is 'rewarded' with being shot in the arm." (Bride of Frankenstein) There is a view that the monster does not deserve the kind of treatment it gets at the hands of the critics as there is nothing unnatural about the character.

A modest proposal Essay Example for Free

A modest proposal Essay Swift also incorporates the use of gruesome details delivered in a pleasant voice, an example of this is, the skin of which, Artificially dressed, will make admirable Gloves for Ladies. This challenges the readers beliefs between right and wrong, and makes him think of how horrible and cruel they are to the Catholics. It does this because the idea of making anything with parts of a human is horrible, and to make something associated with the rich, Gloves for Ladies makes it even more horrible that they dont want to relate to the narrator, who is someone like them. We also see this when he says, particularly Weddings and Christenings. Here, the narrator suggests eating babies at Christenings, which is sickening and goes against any human feelings. He uses this to makes the reader aware that this problem is getting out of hand, and makes the reader realise that is something should be done soon or the problem will escalate to something as sickening as eating babies. This technique desensitises and spoils the readers expectations, and the fact that they are shocked makes them question the fact that they have associated with the narrator in the first place. Another technique Swift uses is entirely unacceptable suggestions made as if acceptable. An example of this is, A Child well Nursed is at a year Old a most delicious, nourishing and wholesome Food. This unexpected exaggeration of detail stuns the reader and makes him think how sick and twisted the narrator is. He then realises that the narrator is Protestant, and how Swift is mocking them and therefore becomes aware of how badly the Catholics are being treated. Another example of this is when he says, I rather recommend buying the Children alive, and dressing them hot from the Knife, as we do roasting. This technique changes the perceptions of the reader because it gives them a twisted image of something that would normally sound appetizing (when roasting a meat), and who up to this point has identified with the narrator, and encourages the reader to think of alternatives to solve the problem, that are moral and justified. Swift also includes some truth, to show how the Catholics are living and being treated. An example of this is when he says, they are every Day dying, and rotting, by cold, and famine, and filth, and vermin. This use of truth creates feelings for the Catholics and makes the reader understand their position. These subtle digs at the affluent Protestants tell the reader they are to blame, this is shown when he says, for Landlords, who as they have already devoured most of the Parents. This shows the mistreatment of the Catholics because they make them seem like murderers, something a high-class person would hate, and makes the reader realise of this and object to the idea. A Modest Proposal has been written with two levels of meaning. The first is that Swift adopts a persuading false act, which is shown through the narrator, but reveals true anger and disgust at the indifferent attitude of landowners the rich and religious Protestants and the intolerance of his time. Swifts use of satirical techniques shows us what was happening at his time through a very different approach. He uses this approach to surprise and mock the readers, which is much more effective, because it makes the readers realise by comparing their ideas to horrible ones that they are in the wrong. This also makes the reader listen and realise better than just a pamphlet saying how bad the Protestants are. The use of satire helps people understand better, through a more enjoyable way and addresses the problem in a more empathetic way. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Jonathan Swift section.

A Comparison between Christopher Boone and Raymond Babbitt Essay

A Comparison between Christopher Boone and Raymond Babbitt Asperger ´s disorder is not a disease, but a developmental brain disorder. It is four times more prevalent in boys than in girls and it shows no racial, ethnic or social boundaries. Family income, lifestyle and educational levels do not affect the chance of Asperger ´s disorder's occurrence. According to Hans Asperger: It is important to know that the person with AS perceives the world differently. Therefore, many behaviours that seem odd are due to those neurological differences and not the result of intentional rudeness or bad behaviour. Both Christopher Boone, from the novel The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time, and Raymond Babbitt, from the movie Rainman, suffer from Asperger ´s disorder. They have several characteristics in common: they are both autistic savants with impaired social interaction, problems with verbal and non-verbal communication, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. Moreover, Christopher and Raymond are similar in that they are both autistic mathematical savants. According to the Wikipedia free dictionary: An autistic savant, historically described as an idiot savant, is a person with both autism and savant syndrome. Savant syndrome describes a person having a developmental or mental handicap of some sort with extraordinary mental abilities not found in most people. Christopher?s mathematical interests are reflected in his numbering his chapters strictly with prime numbers, ignoring composite numbers, such as 4 and 6. He is also the first student to take an A level in Maths and to get an A grade at his school. Christopher has a photographic memory and is extremely observant. Similarly, Raymond ... .... Like Christopher, he also tries to find a pattern which will enable him to make sense of his world. All in all, although there are some superficial differences between Christopher and Raymond, there are quite a number of important similarities. They share the lack of demonstrated empathy, encompass preoccupation with restricted patterns of interests and have an inflexible adherence to specific routines. Furthermore, they exhibit exceptional skills in Maths. From my point of view, most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support and encouragement to maintain an independent life. Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a deviation from the norm that must be treated or cured, and towards the view that AS is a difference rather than a disability. A Comparison between Christopher Boone and Raymond Babbitt Essay A Comparison between Christopher Boone and Raymond Babbitt Asperger ´s disorder is not a disease, but a developmental brain disorder. It is four times more prevalent in boys than in girls and it shows no racial, ethnic or social boundaries. Family income, lifestyle and educational levels do not affect the chance of Asperger ´s disorder's occurrence. According to Hans Asperger: It is important to know that the person with AS perceives the world differently. Therefore, many behaviours that seem odd are due to those neurological differences and not the result of intentional rudeness or bad behaviour. Both Christopher Boone, from the novel The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time, and Raymond Babbitt, from the movie Rainman, suffer from Asperger ´s disorder. They have several characteristics in common: they are both autistic savants with impaired social interaction, problems with verbal and non-verbal communication, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. Moreover, Christopher and Raymond are similar in that they are both autistic mathematical savants. According to the Wikipedia free dictionary: An autistic savant, historically described as an idiot savant, is a person with both autism and savant syndrome. Savant syndrome describes a person having a developmental or mental handicap of some sort with extraordinary mental abilities not found in most people. Christopher?s mathematical interests are reflected in his numbering his chapters strictly with prime numbers, ignoring composite numbers, such as 4 and 6. He is also the first student to take an A level in Maths and to get an A grade at his school. Christopher has a photographic memory and is extremely observant. Similarly, Raymond ... .... Like Christopher, he also tries to find a pattern which will enable him to make sense of his world. All in all, although there are some superficial differences between Christopher and Raymond, there are quite a number of important similarities. They share the lack of demonstrated empathy, encompass preoccupation with restricted patterns of interests and have an inflexible adherence to specific routines. Furthermore, they exhibit exceptional skills in Maths. From my point of view, most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support and encouragement to maintain an independent life. Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a deviation from the norm that must be treated or cured, and towards the view that AS is a difference rather than a disability.

A by John Updike – Short Essay

Write a critical commentary on John Updike's â€Å"A & P† John Updike’s â€Å"A is written during the early 1960’s in America. The short story is written in a first person narrative of Sammy, who is a young employee at a store. The tone of the story is direct and sounds as if one were partaking in a conversation with Sammy himself. The story, thus, is more personal. The reader follows Sammy’s train of thought as he makes observations of events that happen that lead up to climax of him quitting his job. Sammy can be seen as one who does not stand out, he is lost amongst the masses.He has an ordinary job, with ordinary co-workers at an ordinary store. This is how the middleclass, or working-class, is seen, especially during that time. When Sammy first sees the three girls that walk into the store with their bathing costumes on in the bread aisle, the reader notices how carefully Sammy watches them. He begins his descriptions of the first two girls and dismi sses them for the lack of attraction. He then focuses, and seems to be transfixed, on the third girl whom he deems the leader and names her â€Å"Queenie†. One immediately notices that Sammy finds a certain freedom in her beauty.The fact that she is barefoot and barely clothed defies the normal code of attire in a shop and so creates a freedom. One could say that he is interested in her for the fact that she does stand out, that she is not seen as ordinary, unlike him. In a sense, Sammy has a rather immature view of the world. When he hears that â€Å"Queenie† has been sent to the shop simply to buy a jar of herring snacks for her mother, Sammy immediately pictures a party of rich and sophisticated people. His idea of social statuses and class distinctions, could be said, are misguided.He has the idea that money can lead to freedom, and so climbing the social ladder helps gain that goal. When Lengel (the manager) approaches the girls and reproaches â€Å"Queenie† for her lack of clothing Sammy immediately feels the need to rise to the title of a hero. It is as though he now sees â€Å"Queenie†, the leader, change into a damsel in distress, and feels the need to save her from the words of Lengel. It is almost as though by ‘saving’ â€Å"Queenie† he will have a chance at climbing the social ladder that will lead to his success and freedom.One could also say that Sammy is reaching for individuality, to not simply be an ordinary employee, but be able to become someone that stands out as easily as â€Å"Queenie†. Sammy grasps at the romantic idea of a hero and quits his job, yearning to join the girls. However, the girls walk out the store and Sammy is left to talk to Lengel who states that Sammy wouldn’t want to do this to his mom and dad. Sammy is determined to quit. He realises that quitting is a gesture made that has to be followed through.As he stands outside the store, the romantic hero has died wi thin him. The girls are gone and he realises the situation he has put himself in and the financial straits he has put his parents in. Updike has given the reader a glance into a situation that changed Sammy’s life for good. It emphasises how choices can change a person’s life and how at that stage can seem insignificant. Updike shows the reader how complex life decisions can be. Bibliography A by John Updike: The World’s Greatest Short Stories, edited by James Daley, Dover Publications

How working environment can impact on motivation Essay

(A) Describe, with examples, how working environment can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism, covering:- * Job location In travel and tourism, the holiday atmosphere at resort contributes to a sense of well-being. Customers are happy to be on holiday and it is relatively easy to have a positive attitude to work. Whereas if you were working in a call centre where you are office bound and have to spend most of the talking to customer on the telephone. The organisation has to consider how this poorer environment can be improved so that staff remains motivated. * Working conditions and Hours of work Hours of work vary tremendously throughout the industry- some people are happy to work unsocial hours because it fits in with their lifestyle or they wish to have time off when everyone else is working. However, the overall number of hours per week should not exceed 40. * Health and safety Safety and security factors must be considered in the workplace, and legislation such as the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 must be adhered to. Specific regulations also apply where food is served or where the chemical hazards, for example in a swimming pool. All these requirements are important. For some organisations a lapse in safety procedures can mean the collapse of the business and even a prosecution. Companies that organise activity holidays for children, for example must make health and safety a priority. Health and safety is important for both customers and employees. Employees need to know that they can go about their work in a safe environment and work together to ensure their customers are safe. * Equipment and Resources Sate-of-the-art equipment and a pleasant environment are important to motivate staff. * Social event Most companies have a Christmas party or social outgoing for staff. These are useful events to create camaraderie amongst staff and build teams. * Theories of motivation The motivation and commitment of employees is key to success of a team and therefore to the company. Several theorists have come up with models of motivation. The two of that we will look at are Maslow and Herzberg. 1. Maslow Abraham Maslow was an American who in the 1940’s developed a theory of motivation. The theory is valid still for understanding how people are motivated in the workplace. Employers can use it to provide conditions that fulfil people’s needs at the different levels. Maslow theory is displayed as a pyramid because employees can only move up the levels once the lower levels are fulfilled. So, an employee can’t achieve level 4 at work if they are having problems in their personal life or working with colleagues (level 3). Similarly, if they have just been made homeless (level 1) their concern will be finding shelter not performing at work. 2. Herzberg Herzberg’s theory is also known as the ‘hygiene’ theory. Herzberg identified characteristics which make people satisfied with their jobs and those which make them dissatisfied: ‘satisfiers’ and ‘dissatisfiers’. The satisfiers are factors which give people long-term motivation and enable them to enjoy their work: * The type of work * Promotion prospects * Having responsibilities * Sense of achievement * Personal development * Gaining recognition This dissatisfiers or hygiene factors need to be operating well in an organisation but according to Herzberg do not ultimately motivate people. These are: * Salary * Working conditions * Relationships with others- colleagues and managers * Company policy (B) Describe, with examples, how working relationships can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism, covering:- * Management style Management is about motivating people to act in certain ways so that the team can achieve its common goal. A good manager must inform, motivate and develop the team. The four types of manager/management I will be talking about are:- 1. An autocratic manager An autocratic manager makes all the decisions and announces them to the team. This person is the boss and so has full control. The main advantage of this kind of leadership is that decisions are made quickly, as no consultation is involved. Its other advantages include:- * Where there is a need for urgent action the autocrat will take control * Some team members gain security from being told what to do. Disadvantages include:- * Team members may become frustrated at their lack of control * There may not be room for the team to express creativity * There may be over-dependence on the leaders Autocratic management belongs in a traditional hierarchical structure. 2. Consultative management With consultative management, the leader still makes the decisions but discusses them with the team. The advantages include:- * The team is informed of what is going on * Open discussion is encouraged * The manager spends time with the team The disadvantages are that the team feel involved but frustrated by having no real power. 3. Democratic management With democratic management, the decision-making is shared among the team. The advantages include:- * Ideas are encouraged from everyone * There is greater involvement and commitment from team members * The team is likely to be supportive of the leader * The team is fully informed The disadvantages include:- * Some team members may not be able to cope with being involved in decision-making * The democratic process can take too long * The leader may not agree with the decisions of the team * Powerful team members may take over 4. Laissez-faire management With laissez-faire management the team is left to sort itself out and get on with its work. The manager does not get involved and therefore is not leading the team. The advantages include:- * Highly motivated and skilled people are able to get on with their tasks * The team is empowered The disadvantages include:- * New team members will be uninformed * The team may be left with little or no direction * Teamwork Teamwork skills are essential in the workplace. You must be able to work with other people in a team even if you don’t happen to like them. A team is a group of people who are working together to achieve common objectives. Even when you are not physically with other members of your team, you can work together by contributing to a sequence of activities with a common aim. If you were working as a resort representative in Spain, you would still be working in a team with colleagues in head office in the UK. 1. Team roles Good teams achieve synergy; that is, together they can achieve more than the members could individually. More ideas, energy and resources are generated as a group because:- * The team solves problems and makes decisions together * The team focuses on the priorities, with everyone working towards the same aim * The team provides a sense of belonging and a sense of status * The team provides a support network Not everyone in a team is the same- each person has their own strengths and weaknesses. If each person had the same weaknesses, the team could not work; there needs to be a balance of skills. A method of recognising individuals’ strengths and weaknesses is needed in order to build an effective team. The management expert R.Meredith Belbin has outlined nine team roles necessary for a successful team. One person can represent more than one role, as most people have strengths in more than one area. Belbin’s roles:- > Chairperson/ co-ordinator = The group leader, likely to be relaxed and extrovert, also likely to be a good communicator. They will build on the strengths of team members and give them encouragement. > Plant = The ideas person in the team, a person who is creative in looking for solution to problems, but not always good at details, and so may make careless mistakes. > Shaper = The task leader, who unites ideas and effort. Needs to be dominated and extrovert in order to make things happen. > Monitor/ evaluator = The team analyst, who is not so good at ideas but pays attention to details, thus keeping the team directed towards its target. > Implementer = The organiser of the team, who is able to make the ideas of the plant and shaper and turn them into manageable and realistic tasks. A practical, stable and disciplined person. > Resources investigator = The person who is outgoing and will explore and report on ideas and developments outside the group; is sociable and enthusiastic and good under pressure. > Team worker = A very people-oriented person, sensitive to others’ needs. The team worker has good communication skills and will be good at motivating other. A natural mediator, who will deal with any conflict within the team, this person is very good to have around in a crisis. > Finisher = A person who sticks to deadlines and likes to get on with things. Will probably be irritated by the more relaxed members of the team. > Specialist = This person is single-minded and a self-starter and provides knowledge and skills in specialist areas each of Belbin’s roles acquires a different level of important according to the objectives of the team and the stage in the team’s life. 2. team development Formal teams are part of the structure of an organisation and are planned in order to meet that organisation’s objectives. The formal team will follow rules and regulations and may meet on a pre-arranged schedule and complete administrative procedures. Examples in travel and tourism includes sales teams and marketing teams Informal teams work within or outside formal teams. They are sometimes based on personal relationships between members rather than on work roles. When you complete group work for assignments, you often choose the colleagues you wish. You choose to work with people you like and ones you know will be as committed as you are to the work. This is an informal team. There are several theories of team structure and development, which will help you to understand the effectiveness of teams. Bruce Tuckman (1965) identified four main stages of team development:- * Forming – at this stage, team members form their first impressions of each other and establish identities. They are sounding each other out and finding out what is expected of them. * Storming- the team members have, by now, become more used to each other. Members are prepared to put forward their ideas forcibly and openly; they are also prepared to disagree and so there may be some conflict and hostility. * Norming – the team now begins to establish co-operation. Conflict is controlled, views are exchanged and new standards introduced. * Performing – the team is now working together; it begins to arrive at solutions and achieve objectives. There can also be a fifth stage, called ‘adjourning’ or ‘mourning’, where the team has disbanded and the members miss being part of the team. * Job roles and lines of responsibility An organisation chart shows the structure of the company and how the work is divided into different areas. It also shows the lines of responsibility between staff, so that it is apparent who is responsible to whom. An employee studying a chart will find the possible promotions routes. The chart may show a hierarchical structure or line relationship. This is a very traditional structure and shows a chain of command with each person responsible to the person above them. It is sometimes referred to as a pyramid structure. Many organisations today would be depicted in a chart with a flatter structure. There are fewer layers of management, and each manager has a broader span of control. Restructuring of organisations often involves getting rid of middle managers, hence the flattened structure. * Channels of communication Open communication must be encouraged and ideas should be freely expressed in the workplace. There should be trust and support between team members. An effective leader can encourage good communication and shape the way the team works. * Verbal Verbal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages with words, including writing and there are different ways a person can do verbal communication 1. Telephone 2. Word of mouth 3. Video conference 4. Face to face 5. Presentation 6. Walkie-talkie 7. Meetings 8. Bluetooth/ headset (mobile phone) 9. Radio 10. Sign language * Written Written communication guarantees that everyone concerned has the same information and it provides a long-lasting record of communication for future such as 1. Books 2. Brochures/ leaflets, newspaper 3. E-mail 4. Text (written + electronic + verbal) 5. Fax (written + electronic) 6. Notice boards 7. Minutes of meetings * Electronic Electronic communication means any method used to convey a message that has been transmitted via electronic means such as e-mail, video conferencing, radio, TV, mobile phone, internet, fax etc. * Equal opportunities Legislation exists to ensure that personal receive equal opportunities and that there is no discrimination. The arts of parliament that you should be aware of are:- * Race relations Act 1976 This act makes discrimination on racial grounds unlawful in employment, training, education and the provision of goods, facilities and services. The two main type of discrimination involved in this Act are:- 1. direct discrimination:- discrimination against colour disability, citizenship 2. indirect discrimination:- discriminating a racial group * Sex discrimination Act 1975 This act makes it unlawful to discriminating against someone on the ground of gender, marital status, Gender reassignment or sexual orientation. The act was updated in 1986 to remove restrictions on women’s hours of work and then it allowed women to take h=jobs with flexible hours. This act not only covers discriminations in the workplace but in job advertisements and interviews. * Disability discrimination act 1995 This act makes discrimination against people with disabilities unlawful in respect of employment, education and access to goods, facilities, services, and premises. Employers are required to make reasonable adjustments to accommodate people with disabilities. Examples include providing specially adapted keyboards for arthritis sufferers, facilitating wheelchair access and relocating people with limited mobility to the ground floor. * Equal pay act 1970 This act was introduced to address the problem of women being paid less than men for the same work. It allows employees to claim equal value in terms of demands made on them, such as effort, skills and decisions made. There is also an EU Directive that state that for the same work or work of equal value, sex discrimination must be eliminated in all aspects of pay. * Other forms of discrimination Discrimination at work is a very serious issue and can result in large amounts of compensation being awarded following successful tribunals, not to set up policies to ensure that the workplace is free from discrimination. Measures to be taken include:- 1. Setting up a comprehensive equal opportunities policy covering all aspects of discrimination 2. Training staff in discrimination legislation and on how to implement the equal opportunities policy 3. Setting up complaints procedures for instances of discrimination * Employment rights act 1996 When someone gets a job they can aspect to receive a contract of employment. This is a legally binding agreement between the employer and the employee. Under the Employment Rights Act, the employer must give the employee a written document including the following information, in writing within 2 months of starting work:- 1. Name of employer and employee 2. Date employment began 3. Rate of pay and interval of pay 4. Hours of work 5. Holiday entitlement and pay 6. Job title and brief description of duties 7. Place of work 8. Notice entitlement and requirements 9. Sick leave entitlement and sick pay 10. Pension and pension scheme 11. Disciplinary procedures and grievance producers 12. Date of end of employment it fixed term 13. Additional details about working aboard if appropriate. * Notice board After one month of continues employment an employee is entitle to one week of notice if the employment ends. After 2 years’ employment they are entitle to 2 weeks’ notice, after 3 years, 3 weeks’ notice and so on. After 12 years the legal maximum 12 weeks’ notice is reached. A employee must also give notice of leaving to an employer. After one month of continuous employment, an employee must give a minimum of one week’s notice. Employees are entitled to normal pay during notice periods as long as they are working or available for work. * Redundancy Redundancy pay is calculated according to the employee’s age, length of service and salary. Employees can claim for unfair dismissal if they suspect: 1. There is no real redundancy 2. They were unfairly selected for redundancy Dismissal is treated as redundancy if the whole business is closing or a particular job disappears or requires fewer employees. An employer may offer alternative employment. If the employee unreasonably refuses it they are not entitled to redundancy pay. * EU Directives on hours and pay The European Working Time Directive was enacted in the UK through the Working Time Regulations 1998. This lays down the following: 1. A maximum 48-hours week, averaged over 17 weeks 2. at least 4 weeks’ paid annual leave 3. a weekly rest period of at least 24 hours in each 7-day period 4. a daily rest period of at least 11 consecutive hours between each working day 5. an in-work rest break of 20 minutes for those working hours or more per day Some sectors are excluded from the regulations; one of theses is transport. * National Minimum Wage Act 1998 This Act provides workers with a minimum hourly rate below which their wages will not fall. Those who work part time benefit most, because they are often badly paid. The Low Pay Commission advises the Secretary of State on the value of the minimum rate. A special lower rate applies to 18-to 21years-olds. * Maternity and paternity leave The Employment Relations Act 1999 provides for basic rights for maternity leave. There are three periods of maternity leave. Ordinary maternity leave is for a period of 18 weeks which coincides with the period for statutory maternity pay. This applies to all employees. Compulsory maternity leave extends to a period of 2 weeks after the birth; the employer must not permit the woman to return to work during this period. Additional maternity leave follows immediately after the original 18-weekperiod and must end within 29 weeks of the birth. Employees with at least one year’s service with an employer are eligible for the additional maternity leave. Under the same Act there are provisions to allow parents 3 months’ leave in order to care for a child. This is intended to be taken before the child is five. It is intended to be available to men and to women, in addition to maternity leave. Paternity leave is available to men to: 1. Have or expect to have responsibility for the child’s upbringing 2. Are the biological father of the child, or the mother’s husband or partner 3. Have worked continuously for their employer for 26 weeks ending with the fifteenth week before the baby is due. Eligible employees can choose take either 1 week or 2 consecutive weeks’ paternity leave (not odd days) * Statutory sickness pay An employer must pay Statutory Sick Pay to employees who become sick and who normally earn at least à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½79 per week. After 28 weeks, Incapacity Benefit or Income Support must be claimed instead. * Grievance and disciplinary procedures These must be included in the employee’s written statement or contract, or at least there must be a reference to where they can be found. Disciplinary producers deal with such maters as warnings to be given before dismissal. Warnings might arise from the following:- 1. Lack of capability or qualifications-although the employer has a responsibility to give training 2. Misconduct-which includes habitual lateness 3. Gross misconduct (for example, assault or theft) leads to instant or summary dismissal. Grievance procedures deal with complaints by employees who are not satisfied with aspects of their employment. Employees must be given the name of a person to whom a complaint can b made and should be informed of right of appeal. * Investors in people Investors in people is a UK quality standard development in 1990. Those companies who gain the award have proved that they invest in the training and development of their staff. This is beneficial to employees and also to customers and suppliers. The standard for Investors in people is based on four key principals: 1. Commitment from the top to develop all employees 2. Regular review of training and development needs 3. Taking relevant action to meet those needs throughout people’s careers 4. Evaluating training and development outcomes for individuals and the organisation in order to continuously improve These principals are subdivided into 24 indicators of effective practise, and the organisation provides evidence for assessment against the indicators. Once the organisation gets the award it is entitled to display the Investors in People logo on company literature. * ‘Buddies’ and mentoring Mentoring schemes are growing in popularity. They offer employees a one-to one relationship with a mentor, someone with greater experience and a willingness to listen and advice. The mentor and the mentee meet regularly and discuss aspects of the mentee’s job, such as career development. The mentor does not act as a line manager or superior and is never judgemental, but acts as a sounding board and is able to offer ideas and a different outlook on work issues. The Hilton hotel chain runs a mentoring scheme for its staff at all levels. Its purpose is to support staff in their career development. Mentors at the Hilton chain are often colleagues of the mentees doing similar jobs, which departs from the traditional model. All of the mentors have had mentoring training. Some companies have similar, but sometimes less formal, schemes where a new member of staff is given a ‘buddy’ as a source of information and help. * Job security Many contracts today are fixed term, especially in areas such as visitor attractions. This means that the period of employment is not indefinite but lasts for a period of months or a year or two. The reason for such contracts is flexibility for employers- they can lose staff on fixed contracts at the end of the period without penalty. However, such contracts are demotivating for staff as they worry about their future income and job prospects. C) Describe with examples, how incentives can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism including: * Remuneration Remuneration means how much you get paid. You would imagine that this is very important as a motivator. In fact, it is an important factor in attracting people to a company but research shows that it is not the most important incentive. * Performance related pay Bonuses are often based on overall profits and awarded to all employees- usually performance related. * Incentive scheme An example of an incentive scheme could be a competition that staff are invited to enter. The competitions may be based on generating new ideas within the company, or how to boost sales, customer satisfaction or commissions on sales. * Discounts Discounts may be given on holidays or travel for those working in the industry. Many who work in travel and tourism receive cheap travel, perhaps by going on standby if they work for an airline or by going on fact-finding trips to a destination if they work for a travel agent. * Holiday entitlement In the UK employees can expect around 4 weeks’ paid holiday per year. In the public sector more holiday is often given, but this may be balanced against lower pay. * Pension schemes A good pension scheme can act as an incentive for many people who are concerned about security in retirement. * Perks As a perk, employees in the travel and tourism industry are often provided with a uniform. They may get to travel or live aboard and be paid to live there. They may be provided with a company car. * Opportunities for promotion and progression Many employees need a challenge and if they are in the same position, doing a job they find easy, they may become bored and less efficient. Thus, opportunities to move on and face new challenges are an important incentive. Opportunities may arise within an organisation and good people are quickly promoted. You may wish to let it be known that you are interested in progression and ask to be sent on relevant training courses and conferences. D) Described, with examples, how training can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism including: * Training Those employers who wish o ensure an effective workplace will offer ongoing training and development to staff. There are several benefits to organisations add to their workforces. Training can: * Improve individual performance * Improve team performance * Allow staff to be better informal * Equip staff to deal with change and emergencies * Make for a more flexible workforce * Improve morale * Allow managers more time to manage through delegation of other tasks. * Induction training Employers have to provide instruction and training to ensure health and safety, and this is usually a part of induction training. The induction is the first stage of training and is given to new employees; it is important as new employees need to be made welcome and become effective in their work as quickly as possible. Induction covers: * The nature of the job * Introduction to the workplace and to staff * The lines of responsibility * Facilities such as toilets, lockers, canteen * Health and safety basics * Training opportunities * In-house training Large companies offer their own in-house training and may even write their own materials. These training courses are very beneficial as they are tailor- made to meet the needs of the company. * External courses Thousands of external courses are available. These may be specific to travel and tourism or other professional qualifications in areas such as marketing or human resource management. They may be offered by colleges, by travel associations or by private companies. Companies may allow individuals or groups to attend such courses. Some may be long term, leading to advanced qualifications, so a great deal of commitment is required on behalf of the individual.

Generalization and application Essays

Generalization and application Essays Generalization and application Essay Generalization and application Essay The table shows the correct answers gained from both groups of people on the Asian tsunami. It shows that the Asians have a lot more correct answers than the non-Asians. This shows that Asian people knew a lot more about the Asian tsunami than non-Asian people.  From the results there seems to a be a lot of similarity in the results that were gained for questions 1 and 3. This shows that these questions do not depend upon schema and so are most likely to be similar. Similarly its is noticeable that questions such as 2 and 4 have very different answers which shows that these questions depend upon schema and relate to knowledge. Graph (next page)  The graph shows the correct answers from Asians and non- Asians about the Asian tsunami. It shows a comparison between the answers both groups had. It shows the number of people who gave the correct answers in each group.  The graph shows that there is a lot of similarity between the results of question one. This question, as analysed before, can be concluded that it does not require the schema of being an Asian and may fall into the category of general knowledge. This pattern is also similar with question 3. Whereas, the graphs that shows the results of questions 2 and 4 show that there is a varied result between the two groups. From this it can be concluded that these were the questions that required a schema of the Asian culture and understanding as from the graphs we can see that the Asian produced with a lot more correct results.  Relationship of results to hypothesis  As can be seen on the graph Asians have provided with more correct answers than non-Asian on the topic of the Asian tsunami. This shows that they must have a better understanding of the Asian cultures and the geographic area therefore have better understanding and memory of the disaster. : The research hypothesis is therefore accepted that, Asian people will have a better understanding of the Asian tsunami as they have a schema of the Asian culture and framework.   Discussion  Validity  As this is a psychology experiment the chances for complete accuracy in measurements are hard to gain as it is quite hard to measure anything psychological. In the study, questionnaires have been used. This may have problems such as some people may lie in questionnaires. They may also have problems such as forced answers that may not necessarily relate to the answer that they want. Another problem that may arise by using questionnaires as a form of study apparatus is that they may have questions that are biased or asked in a provoking manner and some questions may not cover all aspects of a particular subject. Other problems that may arise are things such as some participants may try to guess the answers to the questions. The problems with the independent variable are that in the two conditions, the males and females may not be a representation of the group that is being studied. They may be a biased sample. A wrong type of person may have been put into the wrong category and so misleading the study and its results.  It may not be measuring the effectiveness of the schema because it depends on the amount that the participant knows about the tsunami disaster. Some of the questions are not valid measures of schema, as schema would not help with the answers. E.g.: scale on the Richter scale. Some Asians may have been born in this country and never even visited the Asian countries that are involved therefore the schema would not be any better than that of non- Asians.  As this is a very general test that involves a generalisation of Asians or non- Asians this could mean that it is not a valid measure for all people as not all Asians will know more about the Asian tsunami or not all non-Asians will know less.  The motivations behind Asian people and non-Asians may vary in that Asians people may have a drive that may push them further and they may feel that they should know more about the disaster. Improving validity  The validity can be improved by focusing on the problems and sorting them out. There are some points that just may not be able to be improved upon as they are uncontrollable variables. The questionnaires can be set out and given to the participants in such a way that they can be completely anonymous. This may help keep the validity of the answers that are gained to be good. To try and keep the participants from guessing the answers the questions should good enough so that they cannot be guessed. As some participants may feel that they want to impress the studier or have self esteem. This can be sorted out by using very anonymous methods of studying. E.g.: having a box to put in the filled in questionnaires rather than giving it back personally to the studier. The questions should be written carefully so that it may not bias the way the participant is going to think or put the answer down. This will enable them to give a good idea of how they are going to answer the question. An option for the participants to put down any alternative answers should be given as this will lower the participants being forced to choose an answer that may not relate to what they want. Although it is very difficult to measure and control the participants knowledge about the tsunami as it was very major news at the time and came to affect everyone on a level of impact. A solution for this can be that people who know a certain amount about the disaster should be tested on, but this is a very hard and impractical approach to solving this problem.  To make sure that the valid types of Asians and non- Asians are used, we could set certain rules to the type of participants chosen. i.e.: The Asians would have to be chosen so that the people chosen are from the areas affected and have lived there for at least one year or visited the place at least two times etc Reliability of results The reliability of the results depends on the trust of the people who have provided the answers. By looking at the method used for this study which is questionnaires there may be some problems such as the moods of people doing the questionnaires they maybe in a particular mood which formulates them to provide with certain answers.  The time of day that the questionnaire was done could have some effect, if they were busy while doing the questionnaire or they were distracted by some other external cause may affect the way the questionnaire was answered and the answers where provide. If they were very busy it could have affected their memory and could not answer something if otherwise they could have easily answered. Other things that may affect the participants directly maybe things such as the participant being tired, hungry or bored this may affect the way the participant will answer the questions. The participants may know the researchers so they may behave differently towards the researcher to fit the way the researcher might like the results to turn out to be. As there is only a small number of people that are being researched it may not give enough reliable results to give reliable averages.  As opportunistic sampling was used it may have some bias such as researchers going for certain types of people or going for people they may know. It has no real system of choosing the participants and so it cannot be replicated. On a different day there maybe different groups of people that may be selected and hence giving a different range of results. The controls of situation also affect the study, if there were two researchers carrying out the study this could affect the results as two researchers might trust the people differently. The way in which the researchers treat the participants may be different. The way in which the questions are asked or given to them could also affect the way the answers are gained. There may be a standard procedure that is set, but may be followed differently by different researchers.  There are also situational factors such as if the participants where with a group of friends which may affect the way the participant answers the questions as they want to impress their friends etc Improvement for reliability To improve the reliability of the study the participants chosen should be chosen fairly and unbiased. They should be chosen so that they can be reliable to give truthful answers. The groups chosen should have a mix of people that represent the group that is being studied and this should be kept constant throughout the different people in the group that are being studied.  The questionnaire should be done to all people around the same time settings i.e.: at lunch where there are lots of people around or in a free period when there are few people around. This should help keep the setting for the study constant. It should not be done when the participant is busy as it may affect the way they answer. If there are any external factors such as loud noises affecting the participant this should be avoided by making them do the questionnaire in another environment which may not affect the way they answer. The researcher should make sure that they choose participants that may not be tired or busy or any factors such as those that may cause them to answer unreliably. The participants should be chosen so that they do not know the researcher as this would avoid the percentage of error that may occur. If they do know the researcher they should be reliable and not biased. If there is enough time a larger sample should be used so that a more reliable average can be obtained as if small numbers are used it may be slightly biased in one way or the other.  A set method of sampling can be used so that there is a real system of sampling so that it can be repeated and the same kind of answers will be obtained. i.e.: using the same people to do the test again. The study could have been done by one researcher alone or with a set procedure which will allow the same type of research techniques to be done on each participant. If there are any major situational factors such as a large group of friends and situations where the participant may be distracted this should also be reduced as it may affect the answers.  Implications of the study  From the study, the results show that there is a difference in the understanding of the Asian tsunami, between Asians and non-Asians. The Asians tend to know more about the event than what the non-Asians knew. This could be due to many factors. The main one being that the Asians would know more about their culture and its surrounding and so will know more and understand more about where and how the Asian tsunami has happened. They might have a greater interest in the incident and may decide to want to find out more about the study. The places could be something that they could relate to more and so they know how to picture the incident better. This is similar to the studies that where investigated in the introduction. The War of the Ghost showed that people could not remember as much as they could in detail about some of the Native American details, but they could remember details that they could personally relate to and understand. So a canoe would become a boat. This relates to the Asian tsunami study in ways which show that people may understand more about the Asian tsunami because it occurred in an Asian surrounding and a place where there are things which Asians can relate to better than non-Asians could. The non-Asians are like the participants in the war of the ghosts. They can relate to the incident by adapting it to their own understanding. This does mean that they would not understand the scale of the incidents as if it had occurred in a non-Asian surrounding it would be different and that would be how they would be trying to relate it to. The scale of devastations would be different and because the infrastructure of the countries in the more developed countries would be different the way things are dealt with would be different and that would be how the non-Asians might presume to happen. Generalization and application  The finding from this experiment is applicable to everyone. As everyone belongs to some culture and everyone has been brought up with different schemas and ways of life. They will be prone to understanding better if something happens in their environment than if it happens in another cultures environment. So even objective news items from around the world will be understood and remembered better by some people than others.  This may not sometimes apply to people that come from mixed cultures or some that may have a good and widespread understanding of all cultures and how it works. This will help people to understand that sometimes it is easier for one person to understand about a subject better than what someone else could understand it.

Experimental Design Questions in ACT Science

Experimental Design Questions in ACT Science SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Every day you have a plan: whether it’s going to school or the movies. You make plans if you don’t already have a plan.Scientists / Researchers are major planners and control-freaks (get it science nerds?). The ACT Science section asks you to figure out what that plan was and how it could hypothetically change.These two types of questions are typically found in Research Summaries Passages. To learn more about this type of passage and learn useful ACT Science tips, check out the 3 types of ACT Science passages. In this article, I'll cover: The Two Types of Studies Independent and Dependent Variables Comparing and Contrasting Experiments Questions Questions about: Why did the Scientist/Student do X? Questions about hypothetical changes to the experiment Throughout the article, I'll dive into real ACT Science practice questions and provide ACT Science strategies along the way. The Two Types of Studies Observational vs. Experimental In Observational studies, scientists simply collect data and study differences.For example, there is an ACT Science passage about measuring the beak depths of finches from different neighboring islands. In Experimental studies, scientists create an experiment where they choose to change certain variables and see how the result changes in response.For example, there is an ACT Science article about giving tadpoles varying amounts of a certain chemical and seeing how it affects their transformation into frogs. Man, I'd hate to be a tadpole under his microscope. In both Observational and Experimental studies, scientists are looking for the differences between different conditions.It's not that meaningful to just provide a single data point - for example, "finches on Island A had an average beak depth of 8 mm."OK, great - what does this mean? Is 8 mm large or small? -Without comparisons, it's hard to know the importance or meaning of a study. Scientists do compare apples and oranges. Therefore, scientists will take multiple data points in different scenarios, and then the scientists compare them.The ACT Science passage on finches shows that "finches on Island A have an average beak depth of 8 mm while finches from Island B have an average beak depth of 9 mm."Now, we can compare the two.Island B finches have a larger average beak depth than Island A finches. This is also where study design differs - scientists will study different aspects of the same general field to find different answers.In an ACT science passage, you'll typically see multiple experiments and studies within a single passage (Particularly in Research Summaries and Data Representation Passages - again for more information about the 3 types of passages in the act science section click here).They will be labeled Experiment 1 / 2 / 3 or Study 1 / 2 / 3.Each experiment or study will be related to each other, but different in major ways.The experiments may measure the same change but use different independent variables, which we will discuss next: Independent and Dependent Variables In experiments, scientists are often changing experimental variables and seeing how the response changes.The variables that the scientists actively change are the independent variables.The variables that they then observe are the dependent variables.Here's an example: Scientist 1 is running an experiment to see how fast a rubber ball rolls down an incline.For each trial of the experiment, Scientist 1 uses different inclines of specific angles.Scientist 1 tested an incline of 10, 25, and 50 degrees. The scientist then timed how fast it took for the ball to roll from the top to the bottom of the incline.What do you think are the independent and dependent variables here? The independent variable is what the scientist is controlling. In this case, Scientist 1 is controlling the degree of the incline.The dependent variableis what the scientist is observing.In this case, Scientist 1 is observing how fast the ball rolls down the incline.It is as simple as that! Scientists might conduct experiments with more complicated scenarios like circuits or heat transfers, but the concept is the same. ACT Science Tip #1: data points are often graphed on an XY-graph, and independent variables are usually on the x-axis and dependent variables on the y-axis. ACT Science Tip #2: in observational studies, researchers don't have independent and dependent variables, as they don't really control what they are studying - they're just observing.But don't worry - the ACT won't ask you to make this distinction; this note is just to improve your understanding of how experiments work.Let’s attempt one of the ACT Science practice questions that asks us about the experimental variables: Let’s start by figuring out what the question is asking us: in Experiment 2, which chemical was the titrant and which was the sample solution? Idon’t know what titrant and sample solution mean. We need to start by figuring out what titrant and sample solution mean in the context of the experiment. ACT Science Tip #3: my recommended ACT Science strategies begin with using the visuals to try to answer all ACT Science questions. However, you could not figure this out by looking at the visual, so you needed to skim.Starting with Experiment 2, since that is what the question is asking about, we skim this, This is helpful because it tells us acetic acid is one of the solutions in Experiment 2 instead of HCl, but it doesn’t tell us whether it was the titrant or sample solution.However, even without knowing which it is, because acetic acid is only mentioned in answer choices A and C, we can eliminate choices B and D.We also learned that HCl was not used because it says acetic acid was used instead, but this doesn’t help us yet. Since HCl is not used in answer choice A or C.To figure out whether acetic acid is the titrant or sample solution, we must skim the rest of the passage.In the introduction, it had this helpful tidbit: We now know that titrant means the added solution andsample solution is the solution to which the titrant is added.Now, let’s skim Experiment 1 for more information because we still don’t know the answer. So, in the original experiment, Experiment 1, NaOH solution was added to HCl solution.According to what we just skimmed and the introduction, this would mean that NaOH is the titrant since it is being added.HCl is the sample solution since the NaOH is being added to it.This is very helpful! We know that in Experiment 2 the same procedure was repeated only using acetic acid instead of HCl. NaOH remains the titrant, and acetic acid replaces HCl as the sample solution.Therefore, the answer is C. ACT Science Tips / Strategies for Variable Questions: When trying to answer questions about experimental variables, start by dissecting the question. Ask yourself is it asking about the independent or dependent variable or both? Which experiment/study is it referring to? Next, look at the corresponding visuals for help answering the question. If you need more information, skim the passage, start by skimming the experiment or study that the question asks about. Skim the rest of the passage if you still haven’t found what you are looking for. Use process of elimination to help you narrow your focus. Do not be tricked by hidden information. This question was very tricky because it required you to look at Experiment 1 and the introduction to find out information about Experiment 2. Know that the answer to Experimental Design questions will always be buried within the passage. So keep digging! Comparing and Contrasting Experiments Comparing and Contrasting Experiment Questions areanother type of Experimental Design question.As I mentioned earlier, ACT Science passages will often give you multiple experiments or studies in the same passage.They will be labeled Experiment 1 / 2 / 3 or Study 1 / 2 / 3.NOTE: Sometimes there are only 2 experiments/studies, not 3.They'll deal with the same general topic but differ from each other in important ways. Here's an example mini-passage: Scientists wanted to study the impact of different types of gas on the mileage of the Toyota Prius Hybrid.In Study 1, each Toyota Prius received a full tank of either unleaded gasoline. The car then drove 100 miles on the highway at 55 mph. The amount of remaining gasoline was measured.In Study 2, the experiment was repeated, but the cars were given premium gasoline instead of unleaded. The amount of remaining gasoline was measured. Great. Let's break this down.What are the scientists studying here?It's in the first sentence - they want to study the impact of different types of gas on the mileage of the Toyota Prius. In what ways are the two studies similar?In nearly every way - in both, the cars drove 100 miles on the highway at 55 mph, and they measured the amount of remaining gasoline. In what ways are the two studies different?This is key - in study 2, the scientist used premium gasoline instead of unleaded.In this way, they changed the experiment a little bit so they could find something new. ACT Science Tip #4: Real ACT Science passages may not be this easy, but it's the same concept. Some things will remain the same between experiments, but there will always be key differences. Make sure you canfigure out these differences. Learning Checkpoint - what were the independent and dependent variables here?The independent variable was the type of gas used: unleaded or premium. The dependent variable was what was measured: the amount of gas remaining. Why Did They Do X? This is another type of Experimental Design question, in which you are asked why the scientists decided to make a certain choice in the experimental design. For example: As we did before, let’s try to figure out what the question is asking us.I don’t know what â€Å"tared† means, so I’m going to skim the passage.According to the passage, Tared means that the balance of the scale was reset to 0 g.So the question is saying, the students reset the scale to 0 g after putting a cylinder on it in order to better measure what?Also, according to the passage, the students were resetting the scale to 0g and then filling the cylinder with liquid.In order to answer the question, we need to figure what were the students measuring? Well, according to table 1 and the passage, the students measured Mass of H2O (g), Mass of Ethanol (g), Total Mass (g), and Density (g/mL).The point of the experiment was to measure the mass of H2O and Ethanol and total mass of the liquid, so the scientists did not want to measure the mass of the cylinder.So, the scientists reset the scale to 0g to exclude the mass of the cylinder when measuring the H2O, Ethanol, and combined liquid.Therefore, the answer is F. ACT Science Tip #5: In most cases, the answer to this is to make the experiment more robust.Scientists really care about bias or messing up the experiment with unintended side effects.By simplifying the experiment (in this case, by not measuring the cylinder), the scientists can be more certainthat their results are accurate. Hypothetical Changes in the Experiment Almost all questions of this skill type will ask something like, "Suppose the experiments had been repeated, except instead of _____, the scientists did _____. What would you expect to happen?" Here's a real ACT Science practice question along with the necessary visuals to answer the question: First, understand what the question is asking - how is the experiment being changed, and what are we measuring?The question is asking about using a 5 L vessel and adding 7 g of CO2.The experiment is being changed because in the original experiments a 3 L vessel and a 6 L vessel were used.The new experiment is still measuring the same thing: pressure at 7g of CO2 added. Then, figure out from the visuals what they tell you about the relationship between the variables.Are they directly proportional, or inversely proportional?In this case, we can see mass of gas added is directly proportional to pressure (for more information about relationships, check out our other article - LINK) Finally, answer the question incorporating all this knowledge.In the experiment in the 6 L vessel, the pressure at 7 g of CO2 added was about 500 torr.In the experiment in the 3 L vessel, the pressure at 7 g of CO2 added was about 1000 torr.So, if a 5 L vessel is used instead, which is in between 3 and 6 L (though closer to 6 L), the pressure at 7 g of CO2 added will be between 500 and 1000 torr.So, the answer is G. ACT Science Tip #6: The way to solve these questions remains the same, no matter how complicated the questions get. Recap There are 2 types of studies: Observational, where the scientists simply observe and measure data. Experimental, where the scientists design and conduct an experiment. There are 3 kinds of Experimental Design Questions: Independent and Dependent Variable Questions Comparing and Contrasting Experiments Why did they do X? You will also be asked about hypothetical changes to the experiment.The strategy is the same for all four types of questions: Start byfiguring out what the question is asking. Which experiment/study is it referring to? What is it asking about? Variables? Hypothetical changes? Next, look at the corresponding visuals for help answering the question. If you need more information, skim the passage, start by skimming the experiment or study that the question asks about. Skim the rest of the passage if you still haven’t found what you are looking for. Use process of elimination to help you narrow your focus. Do not be tricked by hidden information. Keep digging until you cananswer the question. What’s Next? Now that you have the Experimental Design and Hypothetical Questions covered, if you haven’t already, learn tips and strategies for theothertypes of ACT Science questions such asfactual questionsand the hardest ACT Science questions. Also, learn about the best way to study and practice for ACT Science. Like this article? Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Sciencelesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial: Have friends who also need help with test prep? 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See order info Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

See order info - Coursework Example The above discussed factors that include family structure, socio-economic status, community and own personal experiences influence decisions by several ways. These ways include change in moral judgments, emphasizing more modifying the behaviors of an individual and also inability to respond towards transforming socio-economic conditions (Kidder, n.d.). The factors mentioned above might conflict with the needs, preferences and biases of the patients and their respective families by making ineffective decisions by the family members relating to gaining proper treatment, not able to align the economic conditions with the treatment costs and irrelevant personal experience about the stated context (Claywell, 2014). There lay certain ethical theoretical frameworks that describe personal worldview about the aforesaid context in a best way. In this regard, such frameworks could be ascertained as virtue and compassion among others. For example, virtues associated with good character may support in adopting effective decisions towards deriving positive outcomes. On the other hand, exercising compassion with others in a particular setting may also describe personal worldview about the factors influencing decision-making procedure (Claywell,